Publications of Klaniczay, G.

Saints of the Christianization Age of Central Europe (Tenth-Eleventh Centuries)

This volume is the first of two containing hagiographical narratives from medieval Central Europe. The lives of the saints in this volume, from the tenth to eleventh centuries, written not much later, are telling witnesses for the process of Christianization of Bohemia, Poland, Hungary and Dalmatia. Most of them became patrons of their region and highly venerated throughout the Middle Ages. The volume presents the first English translation of a legend of each of these saints with the most recent critical edition of the Latin original and prefaces discussing the textual tradition. In an appendix the extensive hagiographical literature of the saints is being critically surveyed.

Klaniczay G. The Myth of Scythian Origin and the Cult of Attila in the Nineteenth Century. In: Klaniczay G, Werner M, Gecser O, editors. Multiple Antiquities - Multiple Modernities. Ancient Histories in Nineteenth Century European Cultures. Frankfurt - New York: Campus Verlag; 2011. p. 185-212.

Studying Medieval Rulers and Their Subjects. Central Europe and Beyond

This selection of articles, published for the 50th anniversary of the author's doctorate at Göttingen, opens with studies on his teacher, Percy Ernst Schramm, and his contribution to the study of the medieval state and continues with examples of state symbology from Central Europe. Questions of legitimization and representation of kings and queens through texts and Herrschaftszeichen as well as the development of 'coronation studies' are addressed in a comparative framework. The second part contains articles on social and political history mainly of the kingdom of Hungary in the fifteenth century, also attempting to place the issues into a wider context. Finally, two pieces present and discuss the 'use' or 'abuse' of the Middle Ages in the political discourse and display of our times.

The "Vision Thing". Studying Divine Intervention. Christian WA, Klaniczay G, editors. Budapest: Collegium Budapest Institute for Advanced Study; 2009.
Klaniczay G. Saint Elizabeth of Hungary : A European Saint. In: Classica, mediaevalia, neolatina. Vol 3.; 2009. p. 201-22.
Klaniczay G. La santità regale tra culto, iconografia e politica. In: Geretti A, Castri S, editors. Il potere e la grazia : i santi patroni d'Europa. Milano: Skira; 2009. p. 57-64.
Klaniczay G. On the Stigmatization of Saint Margaret of Hungary. In: Rubin M, editor. Medieval Christianity in practice. Princeton: Princeton University Press; 2009. p. 274-84. (Princeton readings in religions).
Klaniczay G. Angels and Devils. In: Neamţu M, Tătaru-Cazaban B, editors. Memory, Humanity, and Meaning : Selected Essays in Honor of Andrei Pleşu’s Sixtieth Anniversary. Bucharest: Zeta Books; 2009. p. 111-8.
Klaniczay G. Dream Healing and Visions in Medieval Latin Miracle Accounts. In: Christian WA, Klaniczay G, editors. The "vision thing" : studying divine intervention. Vol 18. Budapest: Collegium Budapest Institute for Advanced Study; 2009. p. 37-64. (Collegium Budapest Workshop Series; vol 18).
Christian WA, Klaniczay G. Introduction. In: The "vision thing" : studying divine intervention. Vol 18. Budapest: Collegium Budapest Institute for Advanced Study; 2009. p. 7-22. (Collegium Budapest workshop series; vol 18).

Book review : Levelek Lilynek : a világ működéséről

This article reviews the book "Levelek Lilynek : a világ működéséről" by Alan Macfarlane.

Klaniczay G. Konstrukcija svetačkih čuda u razdoblju kanonizacijskih procesa. In: Marinković A, Vedriš T, editors. Hagiologija : Kultovi u kontekstu. Zagreb: Leykam International; 2008. p. 11-38.
Klaniczay G. Modelli di santità in Europa centrale negli ultimi secoli del Medioevo. In: Volpato A, editor. Monaci, ebrei, santi : studi per Sofia Boesch Gajano : atti delle Giornate di studio "Sophia kai historia" Roma, 17-19 febbraio 2005. Roma: Viella; 2008. p. 251-88.
Klaniczay G. Találkozások az Annales-iskolával Magyarországon. In: Krász L, Oborni T, editors. Redite ad cor : tanulmányok Sahin-Tóth Péter emlékére. Budapest: ELTE Eötvös Kiadó; 2008. p. 647-58.
Klaniczay G. The Ambivalent Model of Solomon for Royal Sainthood and Royal Wisdom. In: Biliarsky I, Păun RG, editors. The biblical models of power and law : papers of the International Conference, Bucharest, New Europe College 2005 : Les modèles bibliques du pouvoir et du droit. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang; 2008. p. 75-92.
Klaniczay G. Learned Systems and Popular Narratives of Vision and Bewitchment. In: Klaniczay G, Pócs É, editors. Witchcraft mythologies and persecutions. Vol 3. Budapest: Central European University Press; 2008. p. 50-82. (Demons, spirits, witches; vol 3).
Klaniczay G, Pócs É. Introduction. In: Witchcraft mythologies and persecutions. Vol 3. Budapest: Central European University Press; 2008. p. 1-9. (Demons, spirits, witches; vol 3).

A királyi bölcsesség ellentmondásos mintaképe – Salamon

The Ambivalent Model of Solomon for Royal Sainthood and Royal WisdomThe paper first describes an early medieval ideal with lasting popularity: the cult of Solomon as a biblical model for kingship, and above all for royal wisdom. Starting with Carolingian “mirrors for princes”, it follows the evolution and late medieval triumph of this model and elaborates upon two late medieval examples: the cult of St. Louis of France and Robert the Wise of Naples. The second part of the study points out, however, that the historical development of this model was not a linear evolution but one that was hindered, throughout the Middle Ages, by several detours. Two examples are presented: the history of the “unwise” King Solomon of Hungary, who – despite the fact that the cult of Solomonic wisdom had also been present in 11th-century Hungary thanks to Saint Stephen's Admonishments to his son Emeric – himself did not live up to this model, and lost his kingdom to his cousins. The ambivalent late medieval cult of his person as a saint also portrays him rather as a loser – this type is analyzed in the context of the models of royal sainthood. In the final part, the ambivalence of Solomon's medieval image is described by tracing the “esoteric”, “dark” aspects of his wisdom, his alleged magical expertise, his familiarity with and mastery over the demons and his dubious fame in medieval magical literature.

Klaniczay G. Elisabeth von Thüringen und Ungarn : Zur Europäisierung des Elisabeth-Kultes. In: Blume D, Werner M, editors. Elisabeth von Thüringen : eine europäische Heilige. Petersberg: Imhof; 2007. p. 167-76.
Klaniczay G. Margit-legendák. In: Kőszeghy P, editor. Magyar művelődéstörténeti lexikon : középkor és kora újkor. Vol 7. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó; 2007. p. 282-6.
Klaniczay G. Ördögi kisértetek : Bornemisza Péter és a reformáció ördög-képe. In: Erdélyi G, Tusor P, editors. Mindennapi választások : tanulmányok Péter Katalin 70. születésnapjára. Budapest: MTA Történettudományi Intézete; 2007. p. 617-37.
Klaniczay G. The Process of Trance : Heavenly and Diabolic Apparitions in Johannes Nider’s Formicarius. In: Van Deusen N, editor. Procession, performance, liturgy, and ritual : essays in honor of Bryan R. Gillingham. Ottawa: Institute of Mediaeval Music; 2007. p. 203-58. (Claremont cultural studies).
Klaniczay G. The Sign Language of the "Pauperes Christi". In: Jaritz G, editor. The Sign Languages of Poverty : International Round Table-Discussion, Krems an der Donau, October 10 and 11, 2005. Wien: Verlag der Österreischischen Akadamie der Wissenschaften; 2007. p. 201-20.

Book review : Proving Woman : Female Spirituality and Inquisitional Culture in the Later Middle Ages

This article reviews the book "Proving Woman : Female Spirituality and Inquisitional Culture in the Later Middle Ages" by Dyan Elliott.

The Nineteenth-Century Process of “Musealization” in Hungary and Europe. Marosi E, Klaniczay G, editors. Budapest: Collegium Budapest Institute for Advanced Study; 2006.
Klaniczay G. László-legendák. In: Kőszeghy P, editor. Magyar művelődéstörténeti lexikon : középkor és kora újkor. Vol 6. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó; 2006. p. 454-6.
Klaniczay G. Multiple Antiquities – Multiple Modernities : A Multi-Annual Research Theme in Collegium Budapest. In: for Study CBIA, Marosi E, Klaniczay G, editors. The nineteenth-century process of "musealization" in Hungary and Europe. Vol 17. Budapest: Collegium Budapest Institute for Advanced Study; 2006. p. 7-11. (Collegium Budapest workshop series; vol 17).
Klaniczay G, Pócs É. Introduction. In: Christian demonology and popular mythology. Vol 2. Budapest: Central European University Press; 2006. p. 1-9. (Demons, spirits, witches; vol 2).
Klaniczay G. The Return of Natalie Zemon Davis. Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU. 2006;12:214-8.
Klaniczay G. Laudatio for Peter Brown. Annual of medieval studies at CEU. 2006;12:225-7.

L'underground politique, artistique, rock (1970-1980)

The Political, Artistic, Rock Underground in Hungary in the 1970s-1980sThe article analyses the interweaving relations between politics, arts, rock music, the opposition "counterculture" & "subculture" in the Budapest underground circles in the last decades of the socialist system. After discussing the common features & significant differences in the concepts of "subculture," "folk culture," "counterculture" & underground culture the article describes the political & artistical context of these phenomena in Hungary. The emergence of the rock "new wave" concomitant with the creation of alternative public spaces by political dissidents is an interesting topic for a historical & ethnological analysis. References. Adapted from the source document.

Klaniczay G. Shamanism and Witchcraft. Magic, Ritual and Witchcraft. 2006;1(2):214-21.

Boszorkányok, bűnbakok : hogyan működik a vádaskodás logikája?

Witches and scapegoats : how does the logic of accusation work?In Early Modern Times it was believed that witches gained their malefic skills through an alliance with the devil. Fearful visions of the witch-Sabbath developed towards the end of the Middle Ages; previously the Catholic Church had regarded beliefs such as that witches could fly only as superstitions. All the negative stereotypes related to the idea of witchcraft were supplemented by the rhetorical topos of medieval antifeminism. However, the unexpected spread of witch-hunting during the era of the Reformation and the Wars of Religion may have been due to natural disasters, economic crises and social tensions of Early Modern Times. This lecture gives an evaluation of the A large number of XVI-XVII century Hungarian witch trials were initiated during the XVI and XVII centuries in Hungary. This lecture gives a statistical evaluation of these trials and also analyses a few case studies. But the escalating witch-panic, one of the peaks of which was in Szeged in 1728, led to even fiercer scapegoating and accusations. Ethnology, anthropology, psychology, sociology and the theory of religions are all essential in order to understand the historical mechanisms of scapegoating and witchcraft.

Book review : Nyilván tartottak : Titkos szolgák a magyar rock körül 1960-1990

This article reviews the book "Nyilván tartottak : Titkos szolgák a magyar rock körül 1960-1990" by Tamás Szőnyei.

Communicating with the Spirits. Demons, spirits, witches I. Vol 1. Klaniczay G, Pócs É, editors. Budapest: Central European University Press; 2005.
Klaniczay G. Előszó. In: for Study CBIA, Szentesi E, Szilágyi JG, editors. Antiquitas Hungarica : Tanulmányok a Fejérváry-Pulszky gyűjtemény történetéről. Vol 16. Budapest: Collegium Budapest Institute for Advanced Study; 2005. p. 5-6. (Collegium Budapest Workshop series; vol 16).
Klaniczay G. Hagiográfia. In: Kőszeghy P, editor. Magyar művelődéstörténeti lexikon : középkor és kora újkor. Vol 3. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó; 2005. p. 468-71.
Klaniczay G. Imre-legenda. In: Kőszeghy P, editor. Magyar művelődéstörténeti lexikon : középkor és kora újkor. Vol 4. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó; 2005. 286.
Klaniczay G, Pócs É. Introduction. In: Communicating with the spirits. Vol 1. Budapest: Central European University Press; 2005. p. 1-17. (Demons, spirits, witches; vol 1).
Klaniczay G. Inaugurazione della mostra di Miklós Tui Szőcs. Annuario : Studi e documenti italo-ungheresi. 2005:265-70.
Klaniczay G. Egotrip. Korall. 2005;(21-22):197-206.
Klaniczay G. Ajánlás. Deák VH, editor. Budapest: Kairosz; 2005.

Book review : A tudomány mint hivatás

This article reviews the book "A gondolat erejével : Rendhagyó önéletrajz" by János Kornai.

Procès de canonisation au Moyen Âge. Aspects juridiques et religieux – Medieval Canonization Processes. Legal and Religious Aspects

Medieval canonization processes : legal and religious aspects

Klaniczay G. Familienklöster als fürstliche Residenz für heilige Prinzessinnen. In: Kovács G, editor. "Quasi liber et pictura" : tanulmányok Kubinyi András hetvenedik születésnapjára. Budapest: ELTE Régészettudományi Intézet; 2004. p. 281-8.
Klaniczay G. A csoda struktúrája. In: Pócs É, editor. Áldás és átok, csoda és boszorkányság : Vallásetnológiai fogalmak tudományközi megközelítésben. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó; 2004. p. 67-79.
Klaniczay G. The birth of a new Europe about 1000 CE : conversion, transfer of institutional models, new dynamics. In: Arnason JP, Wittrock B, editors. Eurasian transformations, tenth to thirteenth centuries : crystallizations, divergences, renaissances. Vol 10. Leiden: Brill; 2004. p. 99-129. (Medieval encounters. Jewish, Christian and Muslim culture in confluence and dialogue; vol 10). Abstract

The birth of a new Europe about 1000 CE : conversion, transfer of institutional models, new dynamics

The spread of Christianity, the new state formation processes, the economic, social and cultural evolution, and the development of ecclesiastical and political institutions in East Central and Northern Europe after the turn of the first millennium provide an excellent subject for a broad comparative enterprise dealing with the transmission of institutional and cultural models. This period was a noteworthy and well articulated phase of Euroepan history as a whole, described by Marc Bloch as the "deuxieme age feodal"; this was the "age of the cathedrals" for Georges Duby and the high point ofthe "civilization of the medieval West" for Jacques Le Goff, More recently, it has been characterized by Robert Bartlett as the "making" and the "Europeanization" of Europe, and by R. I. Moore as "the first European revolution". If any model can be identified in the evolution of medieval Europe, this period is the best place to look for it. And if one is trying to observe the transfer of models, what better territory can there be than East Central and Northern Europe, whose people opted, precisely in this period, to follow the example of Europa Occidens? In my essay I provide a brief overview of the studies related to four aspects of this process: the conversion to Christianity, the extension of ecclesiastical structures and of religious orders, the formation of dynastic cults, and the evolution of social categories in the High Middle Ages, looking for similarities and differences in the evolution of these two regions.

Klaniczay G. Bevezető gondolatok az európai középkorról. In: Európa ezer éve : A középkor. Vol 1. Budapest: Osiris; 2004. p. 12-28. (Osiris tankönyvek; vol 1).
Klaniczay G. Az évezredforduló kereszténysége és a szerzetesség megújulása. In: Európa ezer éve : A középkor. Vol 1. Budapest: Osiris; 2004. p. 232-43. (Osiris tankönyvek; vol 1).
Klaniczay G. Reform-szerzetesrendek, eretnekmozgalmak. In: Európa ezer éve : A középkor. Vol 1. Budapest: Osiris; 2004. p. 313-23. (Osiris tankönyvek; vol 1).
Klaniczay G. A koldulórendek és az egyház. In: Európa ezer éve : A középkor. Vol 2. Budapest: Osiris; 2004. p. 9-22. (Osiris tankönyvek; vol 2).
Klaniczay G. Raccolte di miracoli e loro certificazione nell’Europa centrale. In: Michetti R, editor. Notai, miracoli e culto dei santi : pubblicità e autenticazione del sacro tra XII e XV secolo : atti del Seminario internazionale, Roma, 5-7 dicembre 2002. Milano: A. Giuffrè; 2004. p. 259-88.
Klaniczay G. Historische Hintergründe : Der Aufstieg der Vampire im Habsburgerreich des 18. Jahrhunderts. In: Bertschik J, Tuczay CA, editors. Poetische Wiedergänger : Deutschsprachige Vampirismus-Diskurse vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart. Tübingen: Francke Verlag; 2004. p. 83-112.
Klaniczay G. Proving sanctity in the canonization processes : (Saint Elizabeth and Saint Margaret of Hungary). In: Procès de canonisation au Moyen Âge : Aspects juridiques et religieux. Vol 340. Rome: École française de Rome; 2004. p. 117-48. (Collection de l'Ecole française de Rome; vol 340).
Klaniczay G. Introduction. In: Procès de canonisation au Moyen Âge : Aspects juridiques et religieux. Vol 340. Rome: École française de Rome; 2004. p. 1-5. (Collection de l'Ecole française de Rome; vol 340).
Klaniczay G. A csodatörténetek retorikája a szentté avatási perekben és a legendákban. In: Bitskey I, Oláh S, editors. Religió, retorika, nemzettudat régi irodalmunkban. Debrecen: Kossuth Egyetemi Kiadó; 2004. p. 29-49. Abstract

A csodatörténetek retorikája a szentté avatási perekben és a legendákban

The rhetoric of miracle stories in processes of canonisation and in legends.Examines the narratives of miraculous healings, primarily those relating to St. Margaret of Hungary.

Klaniczay G. A View from Inside. In: Adamska A, Mostert M, editors. The development of literate mentalities in East Central Europe. Vol 9. Turnhout: Brepols; 2004. p. 537-40. (Utrecht studies in medieval literacy; vol 9). Abstract

A View from Inside

Closing remarks on a collection of essays on literacy, highlighting three important areas for further research: liturgical writings, the evolution of “personal genres” such as letters, travel reports and autobiographies, and the social differentiation of literate mentalities.

Klaniczay G. Speaking About Miracles : Oral Testimony and Written Record in Medieval Canonization Trials. In: Adamska A, Mostert M, editors. The development of literate mentalities in East Central Europe. Vol 9. Turnhout: Brepols; 2004. p. 365-95. (Utrecht studies in medieval literacy; vol 9). Abstract

Speaking About Miracles : Oral Testimony and Written Record in Medieval Canonization Trials

Focuses on the canonisation proceedings for Elisabeth von Thüringen and Margaret of Hungary.

Klaniczay G. Nemzeti szentek a késő középkori egyetemeken. In: Erdei G, Nagy B, editors. Változatok a történelemre : tanulmányok Székely György tiszteletére. Vol 14. Budapest: Budapesti Történeti Múzeum; 2004. p. 237-49. (Monumenta historica Budapestinensia; vol 14). Abstract

Nemzeti szentek a késő középkori egyetemeken

National saints in late medieval universities.Examines the foundation of universities in Central Europe in the 14-15th centuries, and discusses on the preachers held at the universities and concludes in light of medieval university of Pécs that the universities had a great effect on the development of the cult of national saints.

Nagy B. Bibliográfiai bevezetés a középkori történelem forrásaiba és szakirodalmába. In: Klaniczay G, editor. Európa ezer éve : A középkor. Vol 1. Budapest: Osiris; 2004. p. 29-66. (Osiris tankönyvek; vol 1). Abstract

Bibliográfiai bevezetés a középkori történelem forrásaiba és szakirodalmába

Bibliographic introduction to the sources and literature of medieval history.

Sághy M. Népvándorlás, új etnikumok, lovas nomádok. In: Klaniczay G, editor. Európa ezer éve : A középkor. Vol 1. Budapest: Osiris; 2004. p. 87-98. (Osiris tankönyvek; vol 1). Abstract

Népvándorlás, új etnikumok, lovas nomádok

The Barbarian Invasions, New Ethnic Groups, Nomadic Peoples

Sághy M. Egyház, szerzetesség, térítés a kora középkorban. In: Klaniczay G, editor. Európa ezer éve : A középkor. Vol 1. Budapest: Osiris; 2004. p. 117-32. (Osiris tankönyvek; vol 1). Abstract

Egyház, szerzetesség, térítés a kora középkorban

Church, Monasticism, Mission in Late Antiquity and in the Early Middle Ages

Sághy M. Új európai dinasztiák. In: Klaniczay G, editor. Európa ezer éve : A középkor. Vol 1. Budapest: Osiris; 2004. p. 244-56. (Osiris tankönyvek; vol 1). Abstract

Új európai dinasztiák

New European Dynasties

Sághy M. Az avignoni pápaság és a nagy egyházszakadás. In: Klaniczay G, editor. Európa ezer éve : A középkor. Vol 2. Budapest: Osiris; 2004. p. 169-85. (Osiris tankönyvek; vol 2). Abstract

Az avignoni pápaság és a nagy egyházszakadás

The Avignon Papacy and the Great Schism

Sághy M. Anglia, Franciaország, Németalföld a százéves háború korában. In: Klaniczay G, editor. Európa ezer éve : A középkor. Vol 2. Budapest: Osiris; 2004. p. 186-98. (Osiris tankönyvek; vol 2).
Sághy M. A késő középkori nemzetállamok és a rendiség Nyugat-Európában. In: Klaniczay G, editor. Európa ezer éve : A középkor. Vol 2. Budapest: Osiris; 2004. p. 310-22. (Osiris tankönyvek; vol 2). Abstract

A késő középkori nemzetállamok és a rendiség Nyugat-Európában

Estates and Nation-States in the Late Middle Age

Nagy B. Gazdaság a Karoling Birodalomban. In: Klaniczay G, editor. Európa ezer éve : A középkor. Vol 1. Budapest: Osiris; 2004. p. 175-82. (Osiris tankönyvek; vol 1). Abstract

Gazdaság a Karoling Birodalomban

Economy in the Carolingian Empire.

Nagy B. A gazdasági fellendülés kiindulópontja : a mezőgazdaság. In: Klaniczay G, editor. Európa ezer éve : A középkor. Vol 1. Budapest: Osiris; 2004. p. 223-31. (Osiris tankönyvek; vol 1). Abstract

A gazdasági fellendülés kiindulópontja : a mezőgazdaság

The origin of the economic prosperity : the agriculture.

Nagy B. A "XIV. századi válság" és a gazdasági erővonalak átrendeződése. In: Klaniczay G, editor. Európa ezer éve : A középkor. Vol 2. Budapest: Osiris; 2004. p. 199-207. (Osiris tankönyvek; vol 2). Abstract

A "XIV. századi válság" és a gazdasági erővonalak átrendeződése

The problem of the crisis of the 14th century and the changing structure of the economic trends.

Klaniczay G. Szuperkommersz. Világosság. 2004;45(8-9):4-13.

Book review : Középkori magyar zarándokok

This article reviews the book "Középkori magyar zarándokok" by Enikő Csukovits.

Klaniczay G. New Wave líra – Trabant és Balaton. In: Havasréti J, Horváth ZK, editors. Avantgárd: underground: alternatív : popzene, művészet és szubkulturális nyilvánosság Magyarországon. Budapest: Artpool; 2003. p. 133-42.
Klaniczay G. The "Bonfires of the Vanities" and the Mendicants. In: Jaritz G, editor. Emotions and material culture. Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften; 2003. p. 31-60.
Klaniczay G. L’Ungheria medioevale tra Oriente e Occidente. In: Romagnoli D, editor. Il medioevo Europeo di Jacques Le Goff. Cinisello Balsamo: Silvana; 2003. p. 287-96.
Klaniczay G. Szent írások. In: Czövek J, editor. Imádságos asszony : tanulmányok Erdélyi Zsuzsanna tiszteletére. Budapest: Gondolat Kiadó; 2003. p. 327-36.
Klaniczay G. Vázlat az európai középkorról. In: Ormos M, editor. Magyar évszázadok : tanulmányok Kosáry Domokos 90. születésnapjára. Budapest: Osiris; 2003. p. 27-41.
Klaniczay G. Néhány szó a ruhákról. In: Kapitány Á, Kapitány G, editors. Tárgyak és társadalom. Vol 2. Budapest: Magyar Iparművészeti Egyetem; 2003. p. 72-4.

Svakodnevni život i elite u kasnom srednjem vijeku : civilizirani i barbari

Daily Life and the Elites in the Later Middle Ages : The Civilized ad the Barbarians

Entre visions angéliques et transes chamaniques : le sabbat des sorcières dans le Formicarius de Nider

Etudie les liens du chamanisme avec la sainteté des visionnaires de la fin du Moyen Age, puis avec le sabat des sorcières, pour montrer dans quelle mesure la trance peut être considérée comme un point commun entre la sainte et la sorcière, qui constituent un système binaire.